The GNU C Programming Tutorial

Edition 4.1

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• Preface:
• Introduction:
• Using a compiler:
• The form of a C program:
• Functions:
• Variables and declarations:
• Scope:
• Expressions and operators:
• Parameters:
• Pointers:
• Decisions:
• Loops:
• Preprocessor directives:
• Libraries:
• Arrays:
• Strings:
• Input and output:
• Putting a program together:
• Advanced operators:
• More data types:
• Data structures:
• Recursion:
• Style:
• Debugging:
• Example programs:
• A note from the original author:
• Reserved words in C:
• Precedence of operators:
• Special characters:
• Character conversion table:
• A word about goto:
• Answers to questions:
• Bibliography:
• Glossary:
• Code index:
• Concept index:
• Bits and pieces:

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Table of Contents

• Preface
• Introduction
  • The advantages of C
  • Questions for Chapter 1
• Using a compiler
  • Basic ideas about C
  • The compiler
  • File names
  • Errors
    • Typographical errors
    • Type errors
  • Questions for Chapter 2
• The form of a C program
  • A word about style
  • Comments
  • Example 1
  • Questions for Chapter 3
• Functions
  • Function names
  • Function examples
  • Functions with values
  • Function prototyping
  • The exit function
  • Questions for Chapter 4
• Variables and declarations
  • Integer variables
    • The char type
    • Floating point variables
  • Declarations
  • Initialization
  • The cast operator
    • Cast operator demo
  • Storage classes
    • External variables
    • Static variables
    • Other storage classes
  • Questions for Chapter 5
• Scope
  • Global Variables
  • Local Variables
  • Communication via parameters
  • Scope example
  • Questions for Chapter 6
• Expressions and operators
  • The assignment operator
    • Important note about assignment
  • Expressions and values
  • Expressions
  • Parentheses and Priority
  • Unary Operator Precedence
  • Special Assignment Operators ++ and --
  • More Special Assignments
  • Comparisons and logic
  • Logical operators
    • Inclusive OR
  • Questions for Chapter 7
• Parameters
  • Parameters in function prototypes
  • Value Parameters
  • Actual parameters and formal parameters
  • Variadic functions
  • Questions for Chapter 8
• Pointers
  • Pointer operators
  • Pointer types
  • Pointers and initialization
  • Variable parameters
    • Passing pointers correctly
    • Another variable parameter example
  • Questions for Chapter 9
• Decisions
  • if
  • if... else...
  • Nested if statements
  • The ?...:... operator
  • The switch statement
  • Example Listing
  • Questions for Chapter 10
• Loops
  • while
  • do...while
  • for
  • The flexibility of for
  • Terminating and speeding loops
    • Terminating loops with break
    • Terminating loops with return
    • Speeding loops with continue
  • Nested loops
  • Questions for Chapter 11
• Preprocessor directives
  • A few directives
  • Macros
    • Macro functions
  • Extended macro example
  • Questions
• Libraries
  • Header files
  • Kinds of library
  • Common library functions
    • Character handling
  • Mathematical functions
  • Questions for Chapter 13
• Arrays
  • Array bounds
  • Arrays and for loops
  • Multidimensional arrays
  • Arrays and nested loops
  • Initializing arrays
  • Arrays as Parameters
  • Questions for Chapter 14
• Strings
  • Conventions and declarations
  • Initializing strings
  • String arrays
  • String library functions
  • Questions for Chapter 15
• Input and output
  • High-level file routines
    • Opening a file
    • Closing a file
    • Block input and output
    • File position
    • Stream buffering
    • End-of-file and error functions
  • String output and input
    • Unformatted string output
      • puts
      • fputs
    • Formatted string output
      • printf
      • Formatted output conversion specifiers
    • fprintf
    • asprintf
    • Deprecated formatted string output functions
      • sprintf
    • String input
      • getline
      • getdelim
    • Deprecated string input functions
      • gets
      • fgets
    • Formatted string input
      • sscanf
      • Formatted input conversion specifiers
    • Deprecated formatted string input functions
      • scanf
      • String overflows with scanf
    • fscanf
  • Single-character input and output
    • getchar
    • putchar
    • getc and fgetc
    • putc and fputc
    • ungetc()
  • Programming with pipes
  • Low-level file routines
    • Usual file name errors
    • Opening files at a low level
      • File creation
    • Closing files at a low level
    • Reading files at a low level
    • Writing files at a low level
    • Finding file positions at a low level
    • Deleting files at a low level
    • Renaming files at a low level
  • Questions
• Putting a program together
  • argc and argv
  • Processing command-line options
    • argp description
    • argp example
  • Environment variables
  • Compiling multiple files
  • Writing a makefile
    • What a Rule Looks Like
    • A simple makefile
    • make in action
    • Variables simplify makefiles
    • Letting make deduce commands
    • Combining rules by prerequisite
    • Rules for cleaning the directory
  • Building a library
  • Questions
• Advanced operators
  • Hidden operators and values
    • Hidden assignments
    • Postfix and prefix ++ and --
    • Arrays and hidden operators
    • A warning about style
  • The comma operator
  • Machine-level operators
    • Bitwise operators
    • Shift operations
    • Truth tables and bit masks
      • Bitwise NOT
      • Bitwise AND
      • Bitwise inclusive OR
      • Bitwise exclusive OR (XOR/EOR)
      • Masks
  • Questions 18
• More data types
  • enum
  • void
  • volatile
  • Constants
    • const
    • Constant expressions
  • struct and union
  • typedef
  • Questions 19
• Data structures
  • struct
    • Structure declarations
      • Structure declarations using typedef
    • Using structures
    • Arrays of structures
    • Nested structures
    • Pointers to structures
    • Initializing structures
  • Memory allocation
  • union
    • Declaration of unions
    • Using unions
  • Complex data structures
    • Data structure diagrams
    • Dynamic data structures, Pointers and Dynamic Memory
    • Lists and trees
      • Linked lists.
      • Binary trees
    • Setting up a data structure
      • Designing your data structure
      • Initializing your data structure
  • Further data structure examples
  • Questions 20
• Recursion
  • The stack
    • The stack in detail
  • Controlled recursion
  • Controlled recursion with data structures
  • Recursion summary
  • Questions 21
• Style
  • Formatting code
  • Comments and style
  • Variable and function names
  • Declarations and initialization
  • Global variables and style
  • Hidden operators and style
  • Final words on style
  • Questions 22
• Debugging
  • Compile-time errors
    • parse error at..., parse error before...
    • undefined reference to...
    • unterminated string or character constant
  • ...undeclared (first use in this function)
    • different type arg
    • too few parameters..., too many parameters...
  • Run-time errors
    • Confusion of = and ==
    • Confusing foo++ and ++foo
    • Unwarranted assumptions about storage
    • Array out of bounds
    • Uncoordinated output
    • Global variables and recursion
  • Mathematical errors
  • Introduction to GDB
  • Questions 23
• Example programs
• A note from the original author
• Reserved words in C
• Precedence of operators
• Special characters
• Character conversion table
• A word about goto
• Answers to questions
• Bibliography
• Glossary
• Code index
• Concept index
• Bits and pieces
  • Allocating memory for strings
  • Characters
  • Assigning variables to one another
  • Function pointers